professional: Dictionary Information

professional —adj. 1 of, belonging to, or connected with a profession. 2 a skilful, competent. B worthy of a professional (professional conduct). 3 engaged in a specified activity as one - s main paid occupation (professional boxer). 4 derog. Engaged in a specified activity, esp. fanatically (professional agitator). —n. professional person.  professionally adv.

professional: Geographic Locations

professional: Historical Excerpts

To primitive man music and dance, accompanied by the rhythmic beat of a drum, were important ports of religious expression. Later dvilizations added various instruments, developed professional musidaiis, usually following caste or class Unes, and. with the introduction of popular or folic songs, created a secular as well as a religious music. The Egyptians used the diatonic scale, the ffindus devised a melody pattern called a raga, and the CUnese scales were sets of altering major and minor semitones. Western music developed primarily from the psalms of the Hebrews and the hymns of the Greeks. Greek drama, which began with festivals in worship of the god Dionysus, was an inspired synthesis of poetry, music, and the dance.





General Early drama evolved from religious rites and processions; simple enactment of natural or legendary events; before 2000 an Egyptian passion play dramatized the sufferings of the god Osiris; in the Orient dance pantomime, puppetry, use of masks important elements of theater from earliest times; formal drama, most Western concepts of theater, originated with the Greeks. Greece Greek drama began with the festivals in worship of Dionysus (Bacchus); chorus of men, dressed as goats (tragoi) or satyrs, honored the god with dances and dithyrambs, a hymn or choral lyric. Dionysia (Athens). Great festival; dithyrambic chorus featured. Thespis. Athenian; professional dithyrambist; introduced hypokrites (answerer), actor tvho spoke to chorus during interludes in lyrical parts of performance; spoken parts increased; chorus, numbering 50, later decreased to 15. Modes. Greek term for eight-tone scales, descending in halfand quartertone inters'als; named Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Aeolian, for groups of cities in Asia Minor. Terpander. outstanding leader of Spartan school; noted for vocal and instrumental solos; called ‘Father of Greek music.' Tyrtaeus. fl. 7th century. Lyric poet, musidan; tvrote martial songs commissioned by Sparta. Pythagoras. Important for application of theory of numbers to relationship of tones; defined intervals of Greek mode (scale); used in West until modified in diatonic scaleof 18th, century. Choral Lyric. Closely associated with drama, written by outstanding members of Spartan school, induding Thaletas, Aleman, Exenodamus, Xenoi crites, PqlymKtus, and Sacadas.

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Education influenced by Greeks Indus, elementary schools Latin secondary grammar schools by 1st century Rhetoric and oratory emphasized professional schools prepared for law and. public life Greek or greek-trained teachers





which became basic studies of Middle Ages; rhetorical school, mainly professional; physical exercise de-emphasized in Rome as waste of time.





Social Organization. Originally nomadic people, shepherds linked by bonds of tribal code; similar relationship existed between town people-, society developed rapidly; dhimmis, non-moslems tolerated but taxed; upper middle-class scholars, rvriters, artists, professional men, merchants important but ranked below aristocracy and ruling caliph; slavery common; many slaves well-educated entertainers or scholars. Urban Development. Baghdad, capital, political, economic center of Islam; with Cordova and Seville, rivaled Byzantium; unequaled in Western Europe for centuries: palaces, libraries; paved, illuminated streets luxurious public baths; bazaars offering silks, spices from China and India, furs from region now scandinavia and Russia, gold, ivory, slaves from Africa. INDUSTRY. Western Asia produced rugs, textiles, cotton, woolen goods, furniture; Persians excelled in making tapestries, carpets, Kufan silks; Syria’s magnificent glass and Damascan glazed tile and metalwork unsurpassed; manufacture of paper increased following capture of Samarkand, 8th century, spread through Empire; flowers grown commercially for manufacture of perfumes, essences, oils, unguents. Agriculture. Government undertook land reclamation, reopened canals, tried to restore productivity of ancient mesopotamian land; similar projects in various parts of Empire; remarkable harvests of fruits, vegetables; sugar cane grown. MOSLEM SPAIN. introduction of irrigation projects enhanced various new crops: oranges, lemons, peaches, apricots: new vegetables included spinach, artichoke, rice; mulberry trees, silkworm culture improved; manufacture of leather goods.





Europe Manorial System. Basic rural political and economic unit of medieval life was manor or village; derived from Roman villa and German mark; held by lords with absolute authority; developed into largely self-sustaining, isolated agricultural communities. Land holding or Tenure. Holdings or fiefs were of any size, from single manor to dukedon or kingdom; fief held, not owned, conditional upon performance of obligations, usually military support; protection of fief, joint responsibility of noble landholder and suzerain or overlord; fief might be forfeited for landlord's failure to perform duties; held in trust for minor or widow; passed to eldest son through inheritance. Feudal Relationships. Noble, acting as both vassal of suzerain and overlord of fief, was core of feudal organization; vassal gave allegiance (formerly known as homage and fealty) and services to overlord; latter ‘invested’ vassal with land, and pledged, protection; vassal acted as lawmaker and judge for people of manor; administered land; sat on jury of peers in trials of fellow nobles; often resorted to private warfare to enforce decision. Chivalry. Code of behavior and conduct for nobility, culminating in knighthood; by 13th century, complex program of training, elaborate rules. Social Organization. (1) Nobility: reigning sovereign, lord, landholders (not owners); chief occupation, fighting, either for lord or king, or against rival noble; (2) noble-clergy: Church’s spiritual authority and vast landholdings made them powerful group; nonnoble clerics; (3) commoners: peasants, townspeople or burghers, merchants, bankers, professional people; (4) working classes: largest group, villeins (serfs); condition hereditary, bound to soil and service of lord; obliged to return part of land-produce to lord; smaller group of free tenants oaid rent from harvest, free to leave..mor; freemen increased as lords liberated serfs who were content to remain on land.





Agriculture. Remained chief occupation; land cultivated in strips; 2or 3-fieId system; unscientific methods; local famines frequent. Commerce. Italian trade, led by Venice, expanded steadily; inland trade with cities north of Alps obtained new products for export; exchange of merchandise between Italian and German traders at Bruges, Flemish port; trade revived throughout Western Europe with crusades; political, economic, religious expeditions; markets opened, new products introduced; trade concessions. Hanseatic League. Important German port-cities, Danzig, Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck, Stettin, formed trade association; centers at Bruges, London; powerful. Guilds. Organized by merchants of rising towns; merchant guilds, trade associations for promotion of economic interests of members; controlled, monopolized external trade of town; gained political, social advantages; reached height, 12th century; superseded by craft guilds; varied by country; reflected specialization of. each business or trade; regulated wages, hours, conditions of labor; fixed prices and conditions of sale; standardized workmanship, quality of merchandise; tradesmen both artisan and merchant; only master craftsmen had full rights; social organization; schools, welfare, entertainment; Guild Hall; regulated recruitment and training; apprenticeship, followed by journeyman, worked for daily wages; when master, joined guild; professional men, lawyers, physicians, teachers, students also belonged to guilds. Fairs. Yearly gatherings of merchants; trade between towns; lasted several weeks; held several times a year; Champagne, France, popular fair. Coinage. Money value uncertain; lords often assumed coinage right, adding to unsoundness of currencies; money-changing became specialty; development of standard coins necessary; French, livre tournois and English pound sterling equal to one pound of silver pennies.





Adam de la Halle. Trouvfere, composed lyrics, love songs, motets, rondeaux, and dramatic pieces; mote earliest comic opera, Le Jeu de Robin et Marion. ENGLAND. Tunsted, Simon. Musicologist; credited with writing treatise, De quatuor principalibus musice (published in 19th century in Vol. IV of Scriptores, by coussemaker) , which discussed all forms of music then known; musical terms defined and Musica mensurabilis analyzed. Odington, Walter de (Walter of Eversham) d. cl 330. Author of De speculatione musices, important as study of rhythm in 13th century. ITALY. Landino, Francesco (Landini) outstanding organist, composer, poet; greatly admired blind organist; gained fame at San Lorenzo in Florence; played flute and lute; wrote over 200 madrigals, ballads, cansones, and secular songs., Jacopone da Todi. cl230-1306. Umbrian monk; wrote many Lauds; known chiefly for hymn, Stabat Mater Dolorosa, part of official liturgy of Church. Asia JAPAN. In No drama a distinctive style of dramatic art song, with recitatives alternating with arias, was developed. INDIA. Music became tlie province of professionals, usually members of a low caste of society, employed by the upper castes as entertainers. CHINA. Opera developed into art form during 14th century and gained in popularity.





THEATER Euvope GERMANY. Lessing, Gotthold. Dramatist, critic; one of most influential literary figures of period; wrote many notable plays; Nathan the Wise, 1779, raised controversial issue of freedom of thought. Goethe, Wolfgang von. Poet, dramatist, scientist; tragedy, Gotz von berlichingen, 1773, established shakespearian form of drama on German stage and initiated literary movement, Sturm und Drang. Schiller, Friedrich von. Poet, playwight; considered Germany's foremost playwright; also translated English, Frencli, Italian plays. ENGLAND. Garrick, David. Actor, manager: reputed one of greatest performers of all time; manager, Drury Lane Theater. Sheridan, Richard. Irish dramatist, politician, parliamentary orator; successful writer of comedies, FRANCE. beaumarchais, Pierre. 1732-99. Playwright; best-known. Barber of Seville, Marriage of Figaro, later used by Mozart and Rossini as inspiration for operas; aided colonies during American Revolution. ITALY. Alfieri, Vittorio. Author of 19 successful tragedies, classical in form; fought for freedom and revival of national spirit in Italy. Goldoni, Carlo. Comedies in style of Molidrc; created form whicli superseded commedia dell'arte. SPAIN. Cruz, Ramon. 1731-94. Wrote over 500 plays, chiefly sainetes, one-acters. RUSSIA. Sumarokov, A. 1718-77. Regarded as founder and director of Russian theater; first Russian opera. Volkov, Fedor. 1729-63. Founded Moscow Theater, 1756, DENMARK. Ewald, Johannes. 174381. First original Danish tragedy. United Stales Godfrey, Thomas. 1736-63. First professionally produced play by native American: Prince of Parthia, 1767. Tyler, Royall. 1757-1826. First Am erica.n cAm eri e.Xnvirn





United States manufacture of cotton textiles first mature American industry geared to machine rather than individual, and financed by numbers of people instead of sole owner or bank, and managed by hired professionals; craft unions attempted to combine, 1834, reached membership of 300,000, when crash of 1837 halted activities; Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 1830, first opened to public traffic; by 1840, 3,326 miles of canals and 3,328 miles of railroad had been constructed; expansion in land investment reached 20 million acres by 1836, government aggravated boom by making funds available to banks extending credit; issuance of Specie Circular, requiring all land purchased from federal government after August 15, 1836, be paid for in silver or gold; Panic of 1837 followed; Walker Tariff of 1846 drastically reduced rates and established principle of tariff for revenue only; independent Treasury System restored; publication of Liberator by Garrison, 1831, stimulated abolitionist movement; Dorothea Dix worked for specialized and improved treatment of insane; Robert Dale Owen, social reformer, advocated extension of property rights for married women; Henry Carey opposed pessimistic doctrines of Ricardo and Malthus, developed theory of American economic nationalism. Asia CHINA. Imports of opium surpassed value of Chinese exports to extent that silver flowing out of China caused serious deflation; imperial commissioner stopped all foreign trade, 1839, demanded, surrender of opium; Opium War, 1841-42; Chinese forced to accept British demands for opening of Chinese ports to trade, establishment of uniform import tariff rate, and payment of war indemnity; United States and France entered into treaty agreements and opened China to Western commercial activity.